In Bill Nichols book called “Introduction to Documentary” we read how “documentary films and videos speak about the historical world in ways designed to move or [to] persuade us” (Nichols, 118). In other words, documentaries are often created in such a way that they encourage people to think about specific issues, develop specific beliefs, or to behave in specific ways. One tool that some documentary filmmakers will use to get their messages across is propaganda. This tool was frequently used in documentary war films of World War II. One film which seems to utilize a lot of propaganda techniques is Prelude to War, which was made by Frank Capra in 1942 (Aitkin, 184-185). In this paper I would like to use Prelude to War to illustrate both why and how propaganda techniques were used in documentary war films of World War II.
Before I continue, I must first start by defining what propaganda is and how it can operate in different contexts and settings. In doing so I hope to bring more clarity to the questions of both why propaganda is used so frequently and how it can be such a powerful tool in the hands of those who use it. Once I have done this, I will continue with my explanation and definition as to why and how propaganda can be such an effective tool in war films such as Prelude to War from the “Why We Fight” film series.
Simply stated, propaganda is a tool of persuasion which “is used to shape attitudes and [to] influence actions in a discernible direction” (Stults “World War II Films as Propaganda,” 26). Its goal is to “move [an] audience toward political and social action” so that people will develop a specific belief or behave in a specific way (Simpson, 103-104). However, it can also be used to “enlarge [people’s] understanding and change [people’s] ideas” (Barnouw, 345). This process frequently starts as a person or organization selects a message they want people to act on. After this, the information is presented in such a way so that it elicits an emotional response by provoking emotion over reason (Simpson, 104). This occurs in one of four ways, which include the written word (such as in newspapers, postcards, advertisements and books), the spoken word (such as in speaking with an individual and mass meetings), mass marches (such as in demonstrations and political rallies), and cultural gatherings (like at the movie theaters) (Bytwerk “Modern Political Propaganda”, par. 17-103).
Throughout time propaganda has been used as a powerful tool of persuasion by many groups and organizations. Propaganda has been used by politicians, advertisers, journalists, and radio personalities” alike as a way to send messages to various people (Delwiche, par. 2). It has even been used for many religious purposes (Sproule, 105-142). However, not all of these groups can use the same forms of propaganda for the exact same reasons. Each group must use propaganda in a different ways because each group will have a different audience and different objectives (Bytwerk “Modern Political Propaganda”, par. 1-4). For example, a person who is working in a political office might use propaganda to make themselves look good so that people will support a specific policy they are trying to pass. On the other hand, a business who is selling mouthwash might use propaganda to sell their product by playing off of people’s desires to be attractive and popular (Stults “World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia,” 2).
Now I would like to explain my definition of both how and why propaganda was used in the media during World War II. During World War II propaganda was seen as being a very powerful weapon of war due to its ability to rally multitudes of people to the cause of a country (Murphy, 2). Because of this, many governments throughout the world deliberately placed propaganda in multiple forms of media (Brewer, 99-102). Some of the forms of media in which propaganda could be found during this time included “cartoons, advertisements, posters, radio shows, and news media” (Brewer, 8).
Propaganda was “especially [used a lot] in the most popular [form] of modern media, the motion picture” (Simpson, 103). During this time, “film was considered [to be one of the most] potent weapons of propaganda” because it had been proven to be a strong “source of cultural and psychological influence” (Murphy, 2; see also Stults “World War II Films as Propaganda,” 26). In fact, when it came to persuading and influencing people, there were many who felt that “the motion pictures could play a role equal to that of the written or spoken word” (Murphy, 3).
One of the biggest users of propaganda during war time was Hitler (Aitkin, 1480-1481). Hitler knew that if he wanted to experience success during the war, he would have to get into the minds and hearts of the German people (Jepson, par. 9). Because Hitler understood this so well, he hired Joseph Goebbels in 1933 to help him “bring all [German] media under his control.” This way he could control “all aspects of production, distribution, and exhibition” of the messages which were produced and disseminated among the German people (Barnouw, 100). Once Hitler had all the media under his control, he was able to use it to make the German people look like “the master race” so that he could rally them to his cause and build his empire (Murphy, 3).
Hitler especially liked putting propaganda into films (Bytwerk “Film Propaganda in Britain and Nazi Germany,” par. 1; see also Aitkin 1480-1481). One of the most well-known films which Hitler used to accomplish his purposes of propaganda was a film called Triumph of the Will. This film was a “staged” documentary which Hitler asked Leni Riefenstahl to make in 1934 for the purpose of showing the rebirth of the German government in Nuremberg, Germany (Barnouw, 101-103). In this film Riefenstahl created propaganda by first emphasizing how much the German people were looking for answers to their struggles to create an emotional response. After this, she used film elements such as editing and the soundtrack to show why Hitler and the Nazis were the answer to solving those problems (Aitkin, 1342-1344). Because of this structural pattern, Triumph of the Will eventually came to be considered “an overwhelming propaganda success,” as it rallied many Germans to Hitler’s cause and made Hitler look like the ultimate God-like hero in Germany (Barnouw, 105; see also Baird, 34).
While Hitler was in Germany using propaganda to build his regime, there were also many American forces that were using propaganda as a means to fight against Hitler and the rest of the axis powers (Brewer, 91-98). Some of this propaganda was even created as a direct response to Hitler’s film Triumph of the Will (Simpson, 107). One of the biggest American forces which controlled and disseminated propaganda during this time was a group called the Office of War Information. This organization was set up by President Roosevelt in 1942 as a means to produce propaganda so that American citizens would feel more unified and so they would feel more encouraged to participate in the war (Brewer, 87-88).
One of the main ways that the OWI attempted to encourage Americans to participate in the war was through using a method known as a “strategy of truth.” This strategy of truth operated as the OWI would employ various media sources to carefully select a message they wanted to send. This message was based on facts and actual events relating to the war (Brewer, 88-89). Once the message was selected, propagandists would then calculate or alter the message in such a way so that it would resonate with public opinion (Brewer, 8). This was done by “blending [the] facts with inspiring and reassuring cultural beliefs.” In other words, propagandists created mixed messages by “blurring what was true with what people wanted to believe.” This “strategy of truth” created a more emotional response in the American people and made them more likely to act on the message because it helped them see how the facts and events applied to their own ideals, principles, and interests (Brewer, 4, 89-90).
Now I would like to expand upon my definition of propaganda by showing how it was used in war films of World War II. In this process I will use the documentary war film Prelude to War to illustrate my points. Prelude to War is the first in a series of war films entitled the “Why We Fight” film series. This series was originally made by Frank Capra between 1942 and 1945 (Aitkin, 184-185). Originally, these films were made for military service men for the purpose of helping them “understand the events that led up to the war” and also “to inform soldiers as to why they were being asked to fight.” However, as time progressed, the “Why We Fight” films were soon seen by over 45 million American soldiers and American citizens alike (Langman and Brog, 653; see also Aitkin, 185 and 1449-1450). Eventually, these films even became “an exemplary stalwart” of both documentary tradition and propaganda filmmaking (Rollins and O’ Connor, 243).
As I use Prelude to War to illustrate how propaganda was used in World War II documentaries, I will discuss three propaganda techniques which it uses to get its messages across. In the process, I will also explain how each technique is used, what messages it is attempting to send, and how it fits into my overall definition of documentary war films as it relates to the “strategy of truth” concept which I have just discussed. In order, the specific propaganda techniques which I would like to discuss from Prelude to War include the techniques of “name calling,” “pinpointing the enemy,” and “card stacking” (“Propaganda Techniques,” par. 3, 6-7).
One of the many propaganda techniques I noticed in Prelude to War was the “Name Calling” technique. This is a technique that was employed very frequently during war times, and was often used in many war films. It operates by using derogative language or words to describe an enemy in a negative way. In other words, it labels an enemy group or person according to something that the public dislikes. This is done as a way to “create fear and arouse prejudice” and hatred (McDonald and Palmer, par. 4; see also “Propaganda Techniques,” par. 6).
One of the places where I noticed the “Name Calling” propaganda technique being used came at about 34 minutes into the Prelude to War film. In this part of the film the narrator is talking about the course Hitler and the Nazis are going to pursue in order to take over a bunch of the world’s countries. When it gets to the point of how the Nazis are going to take over the United States, the film mentions that they are going to do so with the help of “their bucktoothed pals.” This name is used as a direct reference to the Japanese people.
In the case of this comment the film is using the “Name Calling” technique by playing off of the prejudices that Americans already felt toward the Japanese people at the time (Brewer, 107). In this case there are two truths stated. The first truth comes as the film references the fact that Japan was working together with Germany in an effort of world conquest. The second truth comes by referencing the fact that the Japanese people had some physical differences in terms of their facial looks when compared to Americans (Garrett, 73). This message was than altered by making a statement that would derogatively exaggerate some of those physical features. This derogative reference probably created an emotional response in American viewers at the time because it sent the message that the Japanese people were a big joke. Therefore, this statement probably created propaganda by causing Americans to hate the Japanese people even more because they understood them even less.
Another propaganda technique which I noticed in Prelude to War was the “Pinpointing the Enemy” technique. Just like the “Name Calling” technique, “Pinpointing the Enemy” was used a ton during World War II. This propaganda technique operates “by presenting one specific person or group of people as the enemy. This is done in hopes that the audience member will begin to “view the situation in terms of clear-cut right and wrong (“Propaganda Techniques,” par. 7).
Throughout Prelude to War I noticed that the “Pinpointing the Enemy” technique was used multiple times. One of the places where I noticed this technique the most was during the first 20 minutes of the film. During this part of the film the “Pinpointing the Enemy” technique is created through the comparing and contrasting of the American side and the Axis power’s side as if they are two completely different worlds. This comparison and contrast starts when the screen shows a picture of two globes. On the left is a lighted globe which represents “the free world” of the American continent. On the right is a very dark globe. This globe represents “the slave world” of the Axis powers on the other side of the earth. After these two globes are shown together, we then get to see the comparison as the camera zooms into each globe and the narrator talks about what they are like.
The interesting thing about this segment is that the propaganda seems to be created through how much time the film spends talking about each side as the comparison and contrast is made. One thing I noticed in relation to this was the fact that out of the first 20 minutes, only 2 minutes were spent focusing solely on the facts of what America was doing right. On the other hand, the film spent 15 minutes or so focusing solely on pinpointing everything that Germany and the rest of the axis powers were doing wrong. For example, the American segment briefly stated the fact that the American people were very religious and that many of the nation’s founding fathers had died for what they believed in. On the other hand, the axis powers were presented as being the ultimate enemy because of how the film kept emphasizing things like how they abolished labor unions, how they got rid of religion, and how they solved all their problems with weapons.
This pattern of “Pinpointing the Enemy” probably created an emotional response in American viewers at the time because it sent the message that all people from axis power countries were “cowardly and unprincipled knaves” (Cole, 137). As a result, it probably caused many Americans to view the war as an “all or nothing contest against the slave world” (Brewer, 10). This method of “Pinpointing the Enemy” probably inspired many Americans to take action by joining in the war effort because it caused them to fear what would happen to their freedoms if they didn’t. However, by using this propaganda technique this film also probably sent some slightly altered messages because it failed to recognize the good qualities of the German, Japanese and Italian people who did have honest goals and desires at the time.
A third propaganda technique which I noticed in Prelude to War was the “Card Stacking” technique. This technique works as the propagandist chooses and presents “only [the] information that is positive to [their] idea” (“Propaganda Techniques,” par. 3). In other words, they “stack the cards against the truth” by selecting only the information that will benefit them the most and by leaving out all the information that will benefit them the least. This allows a propagandist “to make the best possible [case] for [their] side and the worst [possible case] for the opposing viewpoint” (McDonald and Palmer, par. 10). This technique is also considered to be a very powerful and effective form of persuasion because of the way in which it manipulates information (“Propaganda Techniques,” par. 3).
Just like with the “Pinpointing the Enemy” technique, the “Card Stacking” technique seems to operate in Prelude to War through the use of comparing and contrasting. However, instead of operating through the comparing and contrasting of the duration of images, this technique seems to operate more in the comparing and contrasting of what the narrator choses to say about what those images represent. One part where I noticed the use of the “Card Staking” technique was at about 29 and ½ minutes into the film. In this part of the film there is a 2 part sequence which uses this technique. This sequence starts by showing Italian boys doing military drills with gas masks on. It then ends by showing American children donating money to a box which reads “Help the Japanese Children.” As this is being shown, the narrator also states that “while their children were being trained to kill, John Q’s kids were giving their pennies to help them have life.”
In this part of the film the “Card Stacking” propaganda technique is used as the filmmakers carefully select images and narration as a way to present the American people in a positive light. This was done for the purpose of sending a message to the American people that they were “a chosen people with a global mission” to spread democracy throughout the world. This probably created a very emotional response within the American people at the time because it told them something they already believed about themselves (Brewer, 9, 13). As a result, when Americans saw these images of children donating money they probably felt more inspired to support the war so that America could have a better chance of winning (Garrett, 70).
In conclusion, Propaganda is a very powerful tool of persuasion which “[can be] used to shape attitudes and [to] influence actions in a discernible direction” (Stults “World War II Films as Propaganda,” 26). Throughout time propaganda has been used in a multitude of settings and by various organizations to convince people to think or behave in a specific way. Propaganda was especially used a lot during periods such as World War II. On one hand, it was used by forces like the Nazis as a way to build their regime. On the other hand, it was used by American forces in documentary war films as a way to encourage people to support the war effort. Based on how successful propaganda has been in the past, I conclude that it will continue to be a powerful force of persuasion in multiple forms of media in the future.
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